Modern History
The Modern Era (1500-present)
Ceramic Art, Cuisine, Fashion, Culture
Customs and Traditions
Family History (Genealogy)
The Sicilian Language

The Modern Era
The Renaissance and Baroque certainly influenced Sicily internally, but to the rest of the world it was a colony, a kind of strategic province that the Great Powers could trade as a bargaining chip at key negotiations. The Inquisition, with all its horrors, was the strongest social force, and prompted the end of the few remaining mosques and synagogues, and the coercive conversion of the last Muslims and Jews.

With the discovery of the New World, Sicily's importance diminished, though it was still one of the most prosperous parts of Italy, despite an aristocracy intent on exploiting its resources and returning nothing. In 1713, Victor Amadeus of Savoy became King of Sicily, though he ruled the island from his family's traditional capital, Turin. In 1720, the Crown passed to the Emperor Charles VI of Austria, and in 1734 to Charles de Bourbon, son of the King of Spain.

Charles, who actually ruled from Naples, brought a degree of autonomy to Sicily and also to Naples, which had likewise been ruled from afar for some time. He built splendid palaces in his capital and made it the wealthiest, most opulent city in Italy, but spent little time in Palermo.

His son, Ferdinand I, found himself in Sicily during the early years of the nineteenth century, but not by choice. The King and his family were forced to flee Naples during the Napoleonic occupation, when British troops occupied Sicily. The Sovereign's grandson, Ferdinand II, was born at Palermo during this period, but the monarch and his son spent most of their time at the splendid Chinese Villa, set in a park at the foot of Mount Pellegrino, or at the Royal Hunting Lodge at Ficuzza, an estate in the mountains near Corleone. In 1812, Ferdinand signed the constitutional decree abolishing feudalism, thus abrogating the last land rights of the nobility. Though cut off from Naples, Sicily was enjoying an economic boom of sorts with the mining of sulfur.

With the expulsion of the French and the accords of the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815), Ferdinand returned to Naples. In 1816, he amalgamated the Neapolitan and Sicilian realms into one state, forming the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.

By 1848, enough disillusion had developed to spawn a revolutionary spirit. The riot begun in Palermo quickly spread across the island and, to a greater or lesser degree, across Europe. (An analogy to the American protests of 1968 would not be inappropriate.) Though King Ferdinand II suppressed this revolution by force, he considered the situation serious enough to grant his subjects a constitution.

The seeds of dissent had been sown, however, and when a band of mostly Piedmontese troops led by Giuseppe Garibaldi landed in Sicily in 1860, the pious young King Francis II,son of the late Ferdinand II, proved himself ill prepared to meet a military challenge, even though he had Italy's largest army at his disposal. Sadly, a number of high military officers had already been bribed by the Piedmontese, while others saw no reason to fight for a King who seemed reluctant to act. Weapons had already been smuggled into Sicily to support the conquest, and the British fleet commanded by Admiral Rodney Mundy prevented the Sicilian ships from attacking Garibaldi's vessels at Marsala. Additional support soon arrived from Piedmont.

The west-to-east strategy of Garibaldi's campaign was the opposite of the Normans' Messina-to-Palermo strategy, though no less effective; Palermo was one of the first cities to fall but it was months before the fortress of Messina surrendered to the Piedmontese. In the meantime, cities where resistance to the Piedmontese invasion was evident were attacked, sacked and burned. The eastern Sicilian city of Bronte was all but destroyed. Randazzo, Castiglione and Regalbuto followed.

The rest of the Kingdom had fallen by March 1861, though there were pockets of armed resistance by partisans in the mountains of the mainland. There was never any declaration of war, and a false referendum (with an alleged majority of almost 99%) confirmed Francis' cousin, King Victor Emanuel II of Sardinia, as "King of Italy." (Francis himself was exiled and died in Trent, then part of Austria, in 1894; his descendants were illegally exiled until the Allied liberation of Italy from Fascist control in 1943-1945.)

A series of riots followed for several years, in Sicily and elsewhere in the South, and only the presence of thousands of Piedmontese troops could prevent the Sicilians from re-installing Francis II on the Throne. The new regime didn't only confiscate the national bank (and five million gold ducats from the Palermo Mint), whose assets dwarfed those of Piedmont, it executed more than 100,000 southerners between 1860 and 1870, civilians as well as partisans. Most were killed for little more than their loyalty to the Royal Family of Naples, and in very few cases were there trials; others were incarcerated in Alpine prisons for "treason." (This policy contrasted sharply with that of the Kings of the Two Sicilies, who frequently pardoned criminals.) In September 1866, an anti-Savoy revolt broke out in Palermo but was ruthlessly put down within a week. By December of that year, tens of thousands of Piedmontese troops had occupied Sicily to prop up the new regime. Most of the land holdings of the Church were gradually being confiscated by the new government, and with them numerous schools, which were closed. Most Sicilian schools had been administered by the monastic orders, and they were not immediately substituted by state institutions. This meant that illiteracy became more widespread, though previously its prevalence here had been no higher than in other parts of Italy.

For several generations, the cause of Italian unity was enshrined as a kind of national creed, in Sicily and elsewhere. It would be contradicted in 1946 during the brief reign of Victor Emmanuel's descendant, Umberto II, who signed the decree establishing the Sicilian Region as a semi-autonomous part of Italy. More astute historians now concede that a federalist union would have been better than a unitary, monarchical Italy with a shadowy democracy, and federalism is certainly advocated by many Italians today.

The decades following 1860 witnessed Sicily's slow economic decline as important new industries gradually emerged not in the South but in the North. Some of this was economic happenstance, but much was the result of punitive taxation and other national economic policies detrimental to the South. Until the 1860s, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (i.e. Naples and Sicily) was clearly the largest, wealthiest and most industrialized of the various Italian states. While Italian immigration prior to about 1870 had been primarily from the poorer northern regions, henceforth it was to be from the increasingly poorer South. Between 1890 and 1930, millions of southerners left for the Americas.

During the First World War, an inordinately high number of southerners died for their young nation, and the Fascist government that came to power in 1922 did little to alter an unbalanced conscription policy that granted exemptions to those employed in northern factories. It is true that the regime's harsh laws sent serious criminals such as Mafiosi to prison, but they punished journalists and other innocent citizens as well. Even before the advent of Fascism, the Kingdom of Italy could not be said to have been a truly free or democratic nation, and by the 1930s life for many people was worse than it had ever been, despite the institution of old-age pensions and low-cost public housing --benefits which made many Italians overlook the less pleasant (and far less convenient) facts of torture by police officers and postal censorship by a special office.

Fascism's atrocious foreign policy led to Italy's becoming the first country ever cited by the United Nations for crimes against humanity (in connection with the invasion of Ethiopia). At home, the government disgraced the brilliant Arctic explorer Umberto Nobile, who left for America. (Today, most Italian high school students don't know that the second man to fly over the North Pole was an Italian.) Disgusted with Fascism, the gifted conductor Arturo Toscanini emigrated, choosing to live in New York. The racist laws prohibiting Jewish Italians from holding teaching jobs or government posts prompted Enrico Fermi, whose wife was Jewish, to emigrate, followed by a lesser-known Jewish Italian, Emilio Segré, the Nobel laureate who taught physics at the University of Palermo, where he discovered the first artificially produced element, technetium (Tc), in 1937. Both worked on the Manhattan Project. A number of citizens who remained in Sicily actively opposed Fascism, and at great personal risk; the writer Vitaliano Brancati was an outspoken opponent, while Luigi Pirandello was an advocate of the regime, and owed his Nobel Prize for Literature, at least in part, to Mussolini's coercive efforts with several members of the Nobel Foundation.

The Second World War was a disaster. Following years of poverty and oppression, and in the absence of the miracles Mussolini had promised, the Sicilians welcomed the Allies as liberators in 1943. Anticipating defeat, many Sicilian Fascists had already burned their party membership cards, a tactic less effective for those who held public positions. General Alfredo Guzzoni, the Fascist whose job it was to defend Sicily, fled across the Strait of Messina and was quickly forgotten; most of his troops had already abandoned him. The victory was a costly one, as Operation Husky, the largest amphibious invasion yet undertaken, took longer than the Allies had predicted. General George Patton's American troops landed at Gela and advanced with comparatively little effort; thousands of Italian troops had already surrendered at Lampedusa without a fight. Field Marshall Montgomery's British forces met the brunt of German resistance on the Plain of Catania. (Patton later dedicated a plaque in Palermo's Anglican Church to commemorate American lives lost during the fighting, though the presence of ex-Fascists in Italy's government seems an affront to their efforts.)

It wasn't only Allied troops who perished. Though thousands of Sicilians had lost their lives, either during the bombardments or in combat, the Allied victors were viewed as a benevolent force and warmly embraced by the population. They immediately set about the task of reorganization. Political prisoners were freed from jail, journalists were allowed free expression and, most importantly for the average citizen, food was distributed.

Despite Fascist propaganda condemning Allied nations such as the US and UK as evil societies, thousands of Italians found homes in those countries after the war. This included, ironically, many men who had been prisoners of war in Allied countries, where they experienced living conditions superior to those which then existed in Italy.

In 1946, a popular referendum, in which Italian women voted for the first time, established the Italian Republic. The monarchy was thereby abolished, while titles of nobility were no longer recognised by the state. The Senate became an elective body, no longer a group of political appointees, and a genuinely democratic constitution was enacted in 1948. Following two decades of imaginary economic "progress," real economic development was so rapid that the world's economists coined the phrase "the Italian miracle" to describe it. Italy is today one of the world's eight most economically important nations. Its economic-political system is essentially socialist, though most Italians seem happily unaware of this, and many harbour strong views regarding Italy's eclectic political scene. Certain industries are gradually being privatized and investment is being encouraged.

The standard of living improved during the post-war years, when the uncontrolled construction boom of the 1960s transformed cities like Palermo and Catania into vast concrete jungles. But funds sent under the Marshall Plan to rebuild the parts of Palermo destroyed by Allied bombing were misappropriated, and problems with organized crime persist today. Visitors often ask why, in stark contrast to its historical areas, the newest sections of Palermo are so plain. Architectural evolution aside, the main reason is that during the 1960s and 1970s the officials responsible for issuing building permits actually sold them (illegally, of course) to unsavory investors, with little regard for the kind of urban planning that results in pleasant parks and attractive streets. Old Palermo was planned by kings and aristocrats, New Palermo by mafiosi and bureaucrats.

However, historical preservation is once again an important priority for Sicilians, and serious efforts are being made to save the island's unique past. This broad cultural movement's goals focus not only on obvious assets like buildings and other monuments, but less tangible ones like the local language and pre-unification regional history (especially a more balanced consideration of the period from 1700 to 1860).

Most Sicilians are keenly aware of their island's ancient and medieval past, and many study Greek and Latin in high schools dedicated to classical subjects. Ironically, most Sicilians born after 1940 know little of historical events which occurred in their nation after 1920, since these are not taught in great detail in most Italian schools. Despite a certain degree of political autonomy, government in Sicily seems inefficient (even corrupt) to an extent far worse than that of northern Italy. This won't spoil your trip, but it results in poor traffic control and generally poor public services.

Whatever your reasons for visiting Sicily, you'll find a fascinating land full of beauty and charm, complexities and contradictions, ancient dignity and medieval splendor. If you've never thought of history as anything more than a routine academic exercise, a trip to Sicily could bring it to life. Thousands of years of history await your discovery. It's a discovery you'll cherish for a lifetime.

Customs and Traditions
Sicilian traditions range from the aristocratic to the popular, from medieval-style equestrian tournaments to colorful folk festivals. Even with a decreasing number of churchgoers (and with atheism and anti-clericalism on the increase), most Sicilians appreciate the beauty of Catholic traditions, and several Catholic feasts are national or local holidays. But while Catholic feasts, with their traditional religious processions, are still part of ceremonial life, there's nothing quite so dramatic as the classical plays performed in Greek amphitheaters, and the operas and concerts performed in Sicily's splendid opera houses. Puppets (and puppet shows) and colorful painted carts hark back to the island's medieval past.

Most stores and businesses are closed from 1 to 4 in the afternoon. Around 5, activity increases in the main piazzas and streets as people take a passeggiata (stroll) to shop, enjoy a pastry, or just meet friends. Sunday afternoons are usually dedicated to the same kind of activities, though most shops are closed.

Milestones like first communions and weddings take on a momentous tone in Sicily, where family life is still very important. A number of social topics are linked from our page on The Real Sicilians.

Family History
To a great extent, the history of Sicily is the history of families, and a few of the island's aristocratic houses, such as the Lanza and Alliata, trace their lineages from the Norman era. Most Sicilian families don't have histories this old, but competent Sicilian genealogists sometimes trace the lineages of ordinary Sicilian families well into the sixteenth century. Although Sicily boasts the best genealogical resources in Italy, access to those resources is not always a simple matter, and the work of tracing a lineage usually takes a great deal of time and a certain amount of money. The Genealogy Page offers practical advice and a look at actual records.

The Sicilian Language
Dante recognized its beauty, and the language of Sicily (often but incorrectly referred to as a "dialect" of standard Italian) is a unique blend of Greek, Latin, Aragonese, Arabic, Longobardic and Norman-French elements. This Italic tongue may be considered a distinct Romance Language, but while its prose is beautiful, Sicilian is rarely written. Sicilian is quite similar to Calabrian, and shares certain elements with Maltese. Despite attempts by the national government to suppress it after 1860, Sicilian remained the native language of most Sicilians until the twentieth century. A brand of Tuscan had been the official written language since around 1700, before which time most documents were recorded in "Church" Latin. In Norman times, official documents were issued in Greek, Latin, Arabic and, very rarely, in Norman French.

Like many languages of countries amalgamated with their neighbors over time (Welsh, Gaelic and Provençal come to mind), Sicilian gradually fell into disuse among the aristocrats and literate classes, becoming the vernacular tongue of the "popolino," as the masses were called by the nobility. By the seventeenth century, just as the greatest aristocrats of Scotland learned English at home, Sicily's aristocratic classes learned Tuscan, though some nobles necessarily spoke Sicilian in communication with the employees who managed their country estates. Italy's royals spoke Tuscan Italian and formal French, but it is true that the Savoys spoke Piedmontese within their family at their court at Turin, while the Bourbons of Naples spoke Neapolitan as their mother tongue.

Italian may be said to have supplanted Sicilian as the spoken language of most of today's Sicilians, most of whom are educated with little practical knowledge of Sicilian, considered little more than the "vulgar" tongue of the working classes. Subjective sociological observations aside, Sicilian itself has regional forms; the dialect of Agrigento is different from that of Messina. The educational problem confronting some of Sicily's young people, especially in the country or in the older sections of Palermo and Catania, is that many of them simply do not speak, read or write standard Italian proficiently. If, in our age of instant communication and international commerce, the Italian Ministry of Public Education has been lax in addressing the need for English instruction, one can imagine the challenges confronting Sicilian youngsters who can't even speak Italian.

Wider literacy, television and the internet have further diminished the use of Sicilian in favor of standard Italian. Except for Sicilian-Italian dictionaries and a few compilations of Sicilian poetry, Sicilian cannot be said to be a written language. The Bible, usually considered the world's most widely published book, has never been published in Sicilian, which has no standard orthography. However, Sicilian is important in certain linguistic and historical fields, such as onomatology, the study of proper name origins (and an important aspect of genealogy).

Sicilian has no true future tense, and relies heavily on the "past remote" tense for expressing all past actions. The long "u" is often used in words similar to Italian ones which use the long "o." Certain nouns and adjectives differ considerably from those used in Italian: parrinu instead of prete (priest), beddu for bello (beautiful), iddu for egli (he) and idda for ella (she), babbaluci instead of lumache (snails), picciottu instead of giovanotto (young man), cacoccila for carciofo (artichoke), chiddu for esso (it), chisstu for questo (this), and so forth. The Sicilian word tascio, which means "tacky," falsely sophisticated or lacking in good taste, is understandably offensive in fashion-conscious Italy, though to refer to somebody as vastasi, "uncouth," is far worse. Certain Sicilian phrases seem appropriate sometimes. Ammunì sounds much more persuasive than the Italian Andiamo ("Let's go."). Its verb forms make Sicilian as distinct from Italian as it is from Spanish. Sicilian cadency and pronunciation are a bit slower and more gutteral than Lombard and Piedmontese, which are high-pitched and almost musical.

In the 1980s, the Federal Bureau of Investigation's New York office had to enlist the help of agents fluent in Sicilian to translate the recorded discussions of Sicilian Mafiosi working in the United States. The American-born translators were the children of working-class immigrants. It was lucky for the authorities that they existed; the children of university-educated professionals might never have learned to speak Sicilian at home and probably would not have understood enough of the language to translate long conversations.

Recent years have seen a renewed interest in Italy's regional languages as part of the cultural heritage of all Italians. This movement could never have developed in the nineteenth century following the national unification, nor could it have taken place during the Fascist era. Today, there are probably more speakers of Sicilian than any other Italic language except standard Italian.